Seed Words for The Sun
STAR CENTER SOLAR SYSTEM NEARLY PERFECT SPHERE PLASMA HEATED INCANDESCENCE NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS CORE RADIATING ENERGY MAINLY LIGHT INFRARED RADIATION MOST IMPORTANT SOURCE ENERGY LIFE EARTH DIAMETER ABOUT MILLION KILOMETERS MILES TIMES THAT EARTH MASS ABOUT TIMES THAT EARTH ACCOUNTS ABOUT TOTAL MASS SOLAR SYSTEM ROUGHLY THREE QUARTERS SUN'S MASS CONSISTS HYDROGEN REST MOSTLY HELIUM WITH MUCH SMALLER QUANTITIES HEAVIER ELEMENTS INCLUDING OXYGEN CARBON NEON IRON G-TYPE MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR BASED SPECTRAL CLASS SUCH INFORMALLY COMPLETELY ACCURATELY REFERRED YELLOW DWARF LIGHT CLOSER WHITE THAN YELLOW FORMED APPROXIMATELY BILLION YEARS FROM GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE MATTER WITHIN REGION LARGE MOLECULAR CLOUD MOST THIS MATTER GATHERED CENTER WHEREAS REST FLATTENED INTO ORBITING DISK THAT BECAME SOLAR SYSTEM CENTRAL MASS BECAME DENSE THAT EVENTUALLY INITIATED NUCLEAR FUSION CORE THOUGHT THAT ALMOST STARS FORM THIS PROCESS CURRENTLY FUSES ABOUT MILLION TONS HYDROGEN INTO HELIUM EVERY SECOND CONVERTING MILLION TONS MATTER INTO ENERGY EVERY SECOND RESULT THIS ENERGY WHICH TAKE BETWEEN YEARS ESCAPE FROM CORE SOURCE SUN'S LIGHT HEAT WHEN HYDROGEN FUSION CORE DIMINISHED POINT WHICH LONGER HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM CORE WILL UNDERGO MARKED INCREASE DENSITY TEMPERATURE WHILE OUTER LAYERS EXPAND EVENTUALLY TRANSFORMING INTO GIANT CALCULATED THAT WILL BECOME SUFFICIENTLY LARGE ENGULF CURRENT ORBITS MERCURY VENUS RENDER EARTH UNINHABITABLE ABOUT FIVE BILLION YEARS AFTER THIS WILL SHED OUTER LAYERS BECOME DENSE TYPE COOLING STAR KNOWN WHITE DWARF LONGER PRODUCE ENERGY FUSION STILL GLOW GIVE HEAT FROM PREVIOUS FUSION ENORMOUS EFFECT EARTH BEEN RECOGNIZED SINCE PREHISTORIC TIMES BEEN REGARDED SOME CULTURES DEITY SYNODIC ROTATION EARTH ORBIT AROUND BASIS SOLAR CALENDARS WHICH PREDOMINANT CALENDAR TODAY CONTENTS NAME ETYMOLOGY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS SUNLIGHT COMPOSITION SINGLY IONIZED IRON-GROUP ELEMENTS ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION STRUCTURE FUSION CORE RADIATIVE ZONE TACHOCLINE CONVECTIVE ZONE PHOTOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE PHOTONS NEUTRINOS MAGNETIC ACTIVITY MAGNETIC FIELD VARIATION ACTIVITY LONG-TERM CHANGE LIFE PHASES FORMATION MAIN SEQUENCE AFTER CORE HYDROGEN EXHAUSTION MOTION LOCATION ORBIT MILKY MOTION SOLAR SYSTEM THEORETICAL PROBLEMS CORONAL HEATING PROBLEM FAINT YOUNG PROBLEM OBSERVATIONAL HISTORY EARLY UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPMENT SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING SOLAR SPACE MISSIONS OBSERVATION EFFECTS PLANETARY SYSTEM RELIGIOUS ASPECTS ALSO NOTES REFERENCES FURTHER READING EXTERNAL LINKS NAME ETYMOLOGY ENGLISH WORD DEVELOPED FROM ENGLISH SUNNE COGNATES APPEAR OTHER GERMANIC LANGUAGES INCLUDING WEST FRISIAN SINNE DUTCH GERMAN SüNN STANDARD GERMAN SONNE BAVARIAN SUNNA NORSE SUNNA GOTHIC SUNN THESE WORDS STEM FROM PROTO-GERMANIC SUNN THIS ULTIMATELY RELATED WORD OTHER BRANCHES INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY THOUGH MOST CASES NOMINATIVE STEM WITH FOUND RATHER THAN GENITIVE STEM EXAMPLE LATIN GREEK LIOS WELSH HAUL RUSSIAN SOLNTSE PRONOUNCED SONTSE WELL WITH SANSKRIT SVáR PERSIAN XVAR INDEED L-STEM SURVIVED PROTO-GERMANIC WELL WELAN WHICH GAVE RISE GOTHIC SAUIL ALONGSIDE SUNN NORSE PROSAIC ALONGSIDE POETIC SUNNA THROUGH WORDS MODERN SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES SWEDISH DANISH SOLEN ICELANDIC SóLIN ENGLISH GREEK LATIN WORDS OCCUR POETRY PERSONIFICATIONS HELIOS WHILE SCIENCE FICTION USED NAME DISTINGUISH FROM OTHERS TERM WITH LOWER-CASE USED PLANETARY ASTRONOMERS DURATION SOLAR ANOTHER PLANET SUCH MARS PRINCIPAL ADJECTIVES ENGLISH SUNNY SUNLIGHT TECHNICAL CONTEXTS SOLAR FROM LATIN LATTER FOUND TERMS SUCH SOLAR SOLAR ECLIPSE SOLAR SYSTEM OCCASIONALLY SYSTEM FROM GREEK HELIOS COMES RARE ADJECTIVE HELIAC LIćK ENGLISH WEEKDAY NAME SUNDAY STEMS FROM ENGLISH SUNNANDćG SUN'S GERMANIC INTERPRETATION LATIN PHRASE ITSELF TRANSLATION GREEK MERA LIOU GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS G-TYPE MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR THAT COMPRISES ABOUT MASS SOLAR SYSTEM ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE ESTIMATED BRIGHTER THAN ABOUT STARS MILKY MOST WHICH DWARFS POPULATION HEAVY-ELEMENT-RICH STAR FORMATION HAVE BEEN TRIGGERED SHOCKWAVES FROM MORE NEARBY SUPERNOVAE THIS SUGGESTED HIGH ABUNDANCE HEAVY ELEMENTS SOLAR SYSTEM SUCH GOLD URANIUM RELATIVE ABUNDANCES THESE ELEMENTS SO-CALLED POPULATION HEAVY-ELEMENT-POOR STARS HEAVY ELEMENTS COULD MOST PLAUSIBLY HAVE BEEN PRODUCED ENDOTHERMIC NUCLEAR REACTIONS DURING SUPERNOVA TRANSMUTATION THROUGH NEUTRON ABSORPTION WITHIN MASSIVE SECOND-GENERATION STAR BRIGHTEST OBJECT EARTH'S WITH APPARENT MAGNITUDE THIS ABOUT BILLION TIMES BRIGHTER THAN NEXT BRIGHTEST STAR SIRIUS WHICH APPARENT MAGNITUDE ASTRONOMICAL UNIT ABOUT DEFINED MEAN DISTANCE SUN'S CENTER EARTH'S CENTER THOUGH DISTANCE VARIES EARTH MOVES FROM PERIHELION JANUARY APHELION JULY THIS AVERAGE DISTANCE LIGHT TRAVELS FROM SUN'S HORIZON EARTH'S HORIZON ABOUT MINUTES SECONDS WHILE LIGHT FROM CLOSEST POINTS EARTH TAKES ABOUT SECONDS LESS ENERGY THIS SUNLIGHT SUPPORTS ALMOST LIFE EARTH PHOTOSYNTHESIS DRIVES EARTH'S CLIMATE WEATHER DOES HAVE DEFINITE BOUNDARY DENSITY DECREASES EXPONENTIALLY WITH INCREASING HEIGHT ABOVE PHOTOSPHERE PURPOSE MEASUREMENT SUN'S RADIUS CONSIDERED DISTANCE FROM CENTER EDGE PHOTOSPHERE APPARENT VISIBLE SURFACE THIS MEASURE NEAR-PERFECT SPHERE WITH OBLATENESS ESTIMATED ABOUT MILLIONTHS WHICH MEANS THAT POLAR DIAMETER DIFFERS FROM EQUATORIAL DIAMETER ONLY KILOMETRES TIDAL EFFECT PLANETS WEAK DOES SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT SHAPE ROTATES FASTER EQUATOR THAN POLES THIS DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION CAUSED CONVECTIVE MOTION HEAT TRANSPORT CORIOLIS FORCE SUN'S ROTATION FRAME REFERENCE DEFINED STARS ROTATIONAL PERIOD APPROXIMATELY DAYS EQUATOR DAYS POLES VIEWED FROM EARTH ORBITS APPARENT ROTATIONAL PERIOD EQUATOR ABOUT DAYS VIEWED FROM VANTAGE POINT ABOVE NORTH POLE ROTATES COUNTERCLOCKWISE AROUND AXIS SPIN SUNLIGHT MAIN ARTICLE SUNLIGHT SEEN FROM EARTH'S SURFACE SOLAR CONSTANT AMOUNT POWER THAT DEPOSITS UNIT AREA THAT DIRECTLY EXPOSED SUNLIGHT SOLAR CONSTANT EQUAL APPROXIMATELY WATTS SQUARE METER DISTANCE ASTRONOMICAL UNIT FROM THAT NEAR EARTH SUNLIGHT SURFACE EARTH ATTENUATED EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE THAT LESS POWER ARRIVES SURFACE CLOSER CLEAR CONDITIONS WHEN NEAR ZENITH SUNLIGHT EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE COMPOSED TOTAL ENERGY ABOUT INFRARED LIGHT VISIBLE LIGHT ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT ATMOSPHERE PARTICULAR FILTERS OVER SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET ESPECIALLY SHORTER WAVELENGTHS SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION IONIZES EARTH'S DAYSIDE UPPER ATMOSPHERE CREATING ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING IONOSPHERE SUN'S COLOR WHITE WITH COLOR-SPACE INDEX NEAR WHEN VIEWED FROM SPACE WHEN HIGH WHEN MEASURING PHOTONS EMITTED EMITTING MORE PHOTONS GREEN PORTION SPECTRUM THAN OTHER WHEN ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERING RENDERS YELLOW ORANGE MAGENTA DESPITE TYPICAL WHITENESS MOST PEOPLE MENTALLY PICTURE YELLOW REASONS THIS SUBJECT DEBATE STAR WITH INDICATING SURFACE TEMPERATURE APPROXIMATELY THAT LIKE MOST STARS MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR AVERAGE LUMINANCE ABOUT GIGA CANDELA SQUARE METRE VIEWED THROUGH EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE THIS LOWERED ABOUT HOWEVER LUMINANCE CONSTANT ACROSS DISK LIMB DARKENING COMPOSITION FALSE-COLOR WIGGLE ANIMATION NORMALLY DOES MAKE GAMMA RAYS FLARE JUNE CAUSED THIS GAMMA-RAY OBSERVATION COMPTEL INSTRUMENT COMPTON GAMMA OBSERVATORY NEUTRONS FROM COLLIDED WITH INTRASTELLAR MEDIUM PRODUCE GAMMA-RAYS SOLAR FLARE RECORDED SKYLAB ALSO MOLECULES STARS COMPOSED PRIMARILY CHEMICAL ELEMENTS HYDROGEN HELIUM THIS TIME SUN'S LIFE THEY ACCOUNT MASS PHOTOSPHERE RESPECTIVELY HEAVIER ELEMENTS CALLED METALS ASTRONOMY ACCOUNT LESS THAN MASS WITH OXYGEN ROUGHLY SUN'S MASS CARBON NEON IRON BEING MOST ABUNDANT SUN'S ORIGINAL CHEMICAL COMPOSITION INHERITED FROM INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM WHICH FORMED ORIGINALLY WOULD HAVE CONTAINED ABOUT HYDROGEN HELIUM HEAVIER ELEMENTS HYDROGEN MOST HELIUM WOULD HAVE BEEN PRODUCED BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS FIRST MINUTES UNIVERSE HEAVIER ELEMENTS WERE PRODUCED PREVIOUS GENERATIONS STARS BEFORE FORMED SPREAD INTO INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM DURING FINAL STAGES STELLAR LIFE EVENTS SUCH SUPERNOVAE SINCE FORMED MAIN FUSION PROCESS INVOLVED FUSING HYDROGEN INTO HELIUM OVER PAST BILLION YEARS AMOUNT HELIUM LOCATION WITHIN GRADUALLY CHANGED WITHIN CORE PROPORTION HELIUM INCREASED FROM ABOUT ABOUT FUSION SOME HELIUM HEAVY ELEMENTS HAVE SETTLED FROM PHOTOSPHERE TOWARDS CENTER BECAUSE GRAVITY PROPORTIONS METALS HEAVIER ELEMENTS UNCHANGED HEAT TRANSFERRED OUTWARD FROM SUN'S CORE RADIATION RATHER THAN CONVECTION RADIATIVE ZONE BELOW FUSION PRODUCTS LIFTED OUTWARD HEAT THEY REMAIN CORE GRADUALLY INNER CORE HELIUM BEGUN FORM THAT CANNOT FUSED BECAUSE PRESENTLY SUN'S CORE DENSE ENOUGH FUSE HELIUM CURRENT PHOTOSPHERE HELIUM FRACTION REDUCED METALLICITY ONLY WHAT PROTOSTELLAR PHASE BEFORE NUCLEAR FUSION CORE STARTED FUTURE HELIUM WILL CONTINUE ACCUMULATE CORE ABOUT BILLION YEARS THIS GRADUAL BUILD-UP WILL EVENTUALLY CAUSE EXIT MAIN SEQUENCE BECOME GIANT CHEMICAL COMPOSITION PHOTOSPHERE NORMALLY CONSIDERED REPRESENTATIVE COMPOSITION PRIMORDIAL SOLAR SYSTEM SOLAR HEAVY-ELEMENT ABUNDANCES DESCRIBED ABOVE TYPICALLY MEASURED BOTH USING SPECTROSCOPY SUN'S PHOTOSPHERE MEASURING ABUNDANCES METEORITES THAT HAVE NEVER BEEN HEATED MELTING TEMPERATURES THESE METEORITES THOUGHT RETAIN COMPOSITION PROTOSTELLAR THUS AFFECTED SETTLING HEAVY ELEMENTS METHODS GENERALLY AGREE WELL SINGLY IONIZED IRON-GROUP ELEMENTS MUCH RESEARCH FOCUSED ABUNDANCES IRON-GROUP ELEMENTS ALTHOUGH SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH DONE UNTIL DIFFICULT DETERMINE ABUNDANCES SOME IRON-GROUP ELEMENTS COBALT MANGANESE SPECTROGRAPHY BECAUSE THEIR HYPERFINE STRUCTURES FIRST LARGELY COMPLETE OSCILLATOR STRENGTHS SINGLY IONIZED IRON-GROUP ELEMENTS WERE MADE AVAILABLE THESE WERE SUBSEQUENTLY IMPROVED ABUNDANCES SINGLY IONIZED ELEMENTS IRON GROUP WERE DERIVED ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION VARIOUS AUTHORS HAVE CONSIDERED EXISTENCE GRADIENT ISOTOPIC COMPOSITIONS SOLAR PLANETARY NOBLE GASES CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ISOTOPIC COMPOSITIONS NEON XENON PLANETS PRIOR THOUGHT THAT WHOLE SAME COMPOSITION SOLAR ATMOSPHERE CLAIMED THAT FRACTIONATION ITSELF THAT CAUSED ISOTOPIC-COMPOSITION RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANETARY SOLAR-WIND-IMPLANTED NOBLE GASES STRUCTURE FUSION MAIN ARTICLE STANDARD SOLAR MODEL STRUCTURE TEMPERATURE PROFILE MASS INSIDE GIVEN RADIUS DENSITY PROFILE PRESSURE PROFILE STRUCTURE CONTAINS FOLLOWING LAYERS CORE INNERMOST SUN'S RADIUS WHERE TEMPERATURE ENERGIES PRESSURE SUFFICIENT NUCLEAR FUSION OCCUR HYDROGEN FUSES INTO HELIUM WHICH CANNOT CURRENTLY FUSED THIS POINT SUN'S LIFE FUSION PROCESS RELEASES ENERGY HELIUM GRADUALLY ACCUMULATES FORM INNER CORE HELIUM WITHIN CORE ITSELF RADIATIVE ZONE CONVECTION CANNOT OCCUR UNTIL MUCH NEARER SURFACE THEREFORE BETWEEN ABOUT RADIUS RADIUS THERE RADIATIVE ZONE WHICH ENERGY TRANSFER OCCURS MEANS RADIATION PHOTONS RATHER THAN CONVECTION TACHOCLINE BOUNDARY REGION BETWEEN RADIATIVE CONVECTIVE ZONES CONVECTIVE ZONE BETWEEN ABOUT SUN'S RADIUS POINT CLOSE VISIBLE SURFACE COOL DIFFUSE ENOUGH CONVECTION OCCUR THIS BECOMES PRIMARY MEANS OUTWARD HEAT TRANSFER SIMILAR WEATHER CELLS WHICH FORM EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE PHOTOSPHERE DEEPEST PART WHICH DIRECTLY OBSERVE WITH VISIBLE LIGHT BECAUSE GASEOUS OBJECT DOES HAVE CLEARLY DEFINED SURFACE VISIBLE PARTS USUALLY DIVIDED INTO 'PHOTOSPHERE' 'ATMOSPHERE' ATMOSPHERE GASEOUS 'HALO' SURROUNDING COMPRISING CHROMOSPHERE SOLAR TRANSITION REGION CORONA HELIOSPHERE THESE SEEN WHEN MAIN PART HIDDEN EXAMPLE DURING SOLAR ECLIPSE CORE MAIN ARTICLE SOLAR CORE CORE EXTENDS FROM CENTER ABOUT SOLAR RADIUS DENSITY ABOUT TIMES DENSITY WATER TEMPERATURE CLOSE MILLION KELVIN CONTRAST SUN'S SURFACE TEMPERATURE APPROXIMATELY RECENT ANALYSIS SOHO MISSION DATA FAVORS FASTER ROTATION RATE CORE THAN RADIATIVE ZONE ABOVE THROUGH MOST SUN'S LIFE ENERGY BEEN PRODUCED NUCLEAR FUSION CORE REGION THROUGH SERIES NUCLEAR REACTIONS CALLED PROTON–PROTON CHAIN THIS PROCESS CONVERTS HYDROGEN INTO HELIUM ONLY ENERGY GENERATED COMES FROM ANOTHER SEQUENCE FUSION REACTIONS CALLED CYCLE THOUGH THIS PROPORTION EXPECTED INCREASE BECOMES OLDER CORE ONLY REGION THAT PRODUCES APPRECIABLE AMOUNT THERMAL ENERGY THROUGH FUSION POWER GENERATED WITHIN SUN'S RADIUS RADIUS FUSION STOPPED NEARLY ENTIRELY REMAINDER HEATED THIS ENERGY TRANSFERRED OUTWARDS THROUGH MANY SUCCESSIVE LAYERS FINALLY SOLAR PHOTOSPHERE WHERE ESCAPES INTO SPACE THROUGH RADIATION PHOTONS ADVECTION MASSIVE PARTICLES PROTON–PROTON CHAIN OCCURS AROUND TIMES EACH SECOND CORE CONVERTING ABOUT PROTONS INTO ALPHA PARTICLES HELIUM NUCLEI EVERY SECOND TOTAL FREE PROTONS ABOUT FUSING FOUR FREE PROTONS HYDROGEN NUCLEI INTO SINGLE ALPHA PARTICLE HELIUM NUCLEUS RELEASES AROUND FUSED MASS ENERGY RELEASES ENERGY MASS–ENERGY CONVERSION RATE MILLION METRIC TONS SECOND WHICH REQUIRES METRIC MEGATONS HYDROGEN YOTTAWATTS MEGATONS SECOND LARGE POWER OUTPUT MAINLY HUGE SIZE DENSITY CORE COMPARED EARTH OBJECTS EARTH WITH ONLY FAIRLY SMALL AMOUNT POWER BEING GENERATED CUBIC METRE THEORETICAL MODELS SUN'S INTERIOR INDICATE MAXIMUM POWER DENSITY ENERGY PRODUCTION APPROXIMATELY WATTS CUBIC METRE CENTER CORE WHICH ABOUT SAME POWER DENSITY BODY REPTILE INSIDE COMPOST PILE FUSION RATE CORE SELF-CORRECTING EQUILIBRIUM SLIGHTLY HIGHER RATE FUSION WOULD CAUSE CORE HEAT MORE EXPAND SLIGHTLY AGAINST WEIGHT OUTER LAYERS REDUCING DENSITY HENCE FUSION RATE CORRECTING PERTURBATION SLIGHTLY LOWER RATE WOULD CAUSE CORE COOL SHRINK SLIGHTLY INCREASING DENSITY INCREASING FUSION RATE AGAIN REVERTING PRESENT RATE RADIATIVE ZONE MAIN ARTICLE RADIATIVE ZONE FROM CORE ABOUT SOLAR RADII THERMAL RADIATION PRIMARY MEANS ENERGY TRANSFER TEMPERATURE DROPS FROM APPROXIMATELY MILLION MILLION KELVINS WITH INCREASING DISTANCE FROM CORE THIS TEMPERATURE GRADIENT LESS THAN VALUE ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE HENCE CANNOT DRIVE CONVECTION WHICH EXPLAINS TRANSFER ENERGY THROUGH THIS ZONE RADIATION INSTEAD THERMAL CONVECTION IONS HYDROGEN HELIUM EMIT PHOTONS WHICH TRAVEL ONLY BRIEF DISTANCE BEFORE BEING REABSORBED OTHER IONS DENSITY DROPS HUNDREDFOLD FROM FROM SOLAR RADII RADII RADIATIVE ZONE TACHOCLINE MAIN ARTICLE TACHOCLINE RADIATIVE ZONE CONVECTIVE ZONE SEPARATED TRANSITION LAYER TACHOCLINE THIS REGION WHERE SHARP REGIME CHANGE BETWEEN UNIFORM ROTATION RADIATIVE ZONE DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION CONVECTION ZONE RESULTS LARGE SHEAR BETWEEN TWO—A CONDITION WHERE SUCCESSIVE HORIZONTAL LAYERS SLIDE PAST ANOTHER PRESENTLY HYPOTHESIZED SOLAR DYNAMO THAT MAGNETIC DYNAMO WITHIN THIS LAYER GENERATES SUN'S MAGNETIC FIELD CONVECTIVE ZONE MAIN ARTICLE CONVECTION ZONE SUN'S CONVECTION ZONE EXTENDS FROM SOLAR RADII NEAR SURFACE THIS LAYER SOLAR PLASMA DENSE ENOUGH ENOUGH TRANSFER HEAT ENERGY INTERIOR OUTWARD RADIATION INSTEAD DENSITY PLASMA ENOUGH ALLOW CONVECTIVE CURRENTS DEVELOP MOVE SUN'S ENERGY OUTWARD TOWARDS SURFACE MATERIAL HEATED TACHOCLINE PICKS HEAT EXPANDS THEREBY REDUCING DENSITY ALLOWING RISE RESULT ORDERLY MOTION MASS DEVELOPS INTO THERMAL CELLS THAT CARRY MAJORITY HEAT OUTWARD SUN'S PHOTOSPHERE ABOVE ONCE MATERIAL DIFFUSIVELY RADIATIVELY COOLS JUST BENEATH PHOTOSPHERIC SURFACE DENSITY INCREASES SINKS BASE CONVECTION ZONE WHERE AGAIN PICKS HEAT FROM RADIATIVE ZONE CONVECTIVE CYCLE CONTINUES PHOTOSPHERE TEMPERATURE DROPPED DENSITY ONLY ABOUT DENSITY LEVEL THERMAL COLUMNS CONVECTION ZONE FORM IMPRINT SURFACE GIVING GRANULAR APPEARANCE CALLED SOLAR GRANULATION SMALLEST SCALE SUPERGRANULATION LARGER SCALES TURBULENT CONVECTION THIS OUTER PART SOLAR INTERIOR SUSTAINS SMALL-SCALE DYNAMO ACTION OVER NEAR-SURFACE VOLUME SUN'S THERMAL COLUMNS BéNARD CELLS TAKE SHAPE HEXAGONAL PRISMS PHOTOSPHERE EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE BLACK BODY TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE BLACK BODY SAME SIZE MUST HAVE YIELD SAME TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER MAIN ARTICLE PHOTOSPHERE MIASMA PLASMA HIGH-RESOLUTION IMAGE SUN'S SURFACE TAKEN DANIEL INOUYE SOLAR TELESCOPE DKIST VISIBLE SURFACE PHOTOSPHERE LAYER BELOW WHICH BECOMES OPAQUE VISIBLE LIGHT PHOTONS PRODUCED THIS LAYER ESCAPE THROUGH TRANSPARENT SOLAR ATMOSPHERE ABOVE BECOME SOLAR RADIATION SUNLIGHT CHANGE OPACITY DECREASING AMOUNT IONS WHICH ABSORB VISIBLE LIGHT EASILY CONVERSELY VISIBLE LIGHT PRODUCED ELECTRONS REACT WITH HYDROGEN ATOMS PRODUCE IONS PHOTOSPHERE TENS HUNDREDS KILOMETERS THICK SLIGHTLY LESS OPAQUE THAN EARTH BECAUSE UPPER PART PHOTOSPHERE COOLER THAN LOWER PART IMAGE APPEARS BRIGHTER CENTER THAN EDGE LIMB SOLAR DISK PHENOMENON KNOWN LIMB DARKENING SPECTRUM SUNLIGHT APPROXIMATELY SPECTRUM BLACK-BODY RADIATING INTERSPERSED WITH ATOMIC ABSORPTION LINES FROM TENUOUS LAYERS ABOVE PHOTOSPHERE PHOTOSPHERE PARTICLE DENSITY ABOUT PARTICLE NUMBER VOLUME EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE LEVEL PHOTOSPHERE FULLY IONIZED—THE EXTENT IONIZATION ABOUT LEAVING ALMOST HYDROGEN ATOMIC FORM DURING EARLY STUDIES OPTICAL SPECTRUM PHOTOSPHERE SOME ABSORPTION LINES WERE FOUND THAT CORRESPOND CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THEN KNOWN EARTH NORMAN LOCKYER HYPOTHESIZED THAT THESE ABSORPTION LINES WERE CAUSED ELEMENT THAT DUBBED HELIUM AFTER GREEK HELIOS TWENTY-FIVE YEARS LATER HELIUM ISOLATED EARTH ATMOSPHERE ALSO SOLAR CORONA CORONAL LOOP DURING TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE SOLAR CORONA SEEN WITH NAKED DURING BRIEF PERIOD TOTALITY DURING TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE WHEN DISK COVERED THAT MOON PARTS SUN'S SURROUNDING ATMOSPHERE SEEN COMPOSED FOUR DISTINCT PARTS CHROMOSPHERE TRANSITION REGION CORONA HELIOSPHERE COOLEST LAYER TEMPERATURE MINIMUM REGION EXTENDING ABOUT ABOVE PHOTOSPHERE TEMPERATURE ABOUT THIS PART COOL ENOUGH ALLOW EXISTENCE SIMPLE MOLECULES SUCH CARBON MONOXIDE WATER WHICH DETECTED THEIR ABSORPTION SPECTRA CHROMOSPHERE TRANSITION REGION CORONA MUCH HOTTER THAN SURFACE REASON WELL UNDERSTOOD EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT ALFVéN WAVES HAVE ENOUGH ENERGY HEAT CORONA ABOVE TEMPERATURE MINIMUM LAYER LAYER ABOUT THICK DOMINATED SPECTRUM EMISSION ABSORPTION LINES CALLED CHROMOSPHERE FROM GREEK ROOT CHROMA MEANING COLOR BECAUSE CHROMOSPHERE VISIBLE COLORED FLASH BEGINNING TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSES TEMPERATURE CHROMOSPHERE INCREASES GRADUALLY WITH ALTITUDE RANGING AROUND NEAR UPPER PART CHROMOSPHERE HELIUM BECOMES PARTIALLY IONIZED TAKEN HINODE'S SOLAR OPTICAL TELESCOPE JANUARY THIS IMAGE REVEALS FILAMENTARY NATURE PLASMA CONNECTING REGIONS DIFFERENT MAGNETIC POLARITY ABOVE CHROMOSPHERE THIN ABOUT TRANSITION REGION TEMPERATURE RISES RAPIDLY FROM AROUND UPPER CHROMOSPHERE CORONAL TEMPERATURES CLOSER TEMPERATURE INCREASE FACILITATED FULL IONIZATION HELIUM TRANSITION REGION WHICH SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCES RADIATIVE COOLING PLASMA TRANSITION REGION DOES OCCUR WELL-DEFINED ALTITUDE RATHER FORMS KIND NIMBUS AROUND CHROMOSPHERIC FEATURES SUCH SPICULES FILAMENTS CONSTANT CHAOTIC MOTION TRANSITION REGION EASILY VISIBLE FROM EARTH'S SURFACE READILY OBSERVABLE FROM SPACE INSTRUMENTS SENSITIVE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET PORTION SPECTRUM CORONA NEXT LAYER CORONA NEAR SURFACE PARTICLE DENSITY AROUND AVERAGE TEMPERATURE CORONA SOLAR WIND ABOUT HOWEVER HOTTEST REGIONS ALTHOUGH COMPLETE THEORY EXISTS ACCOUNT TEMPERATURE CORONA LEAST SOME HEAT KNOWN FROM MAGNETIC RECONNECTION CORONA EXTENDED ATMOSPHERE WHICH VOLUME MUCH LARGER THAN VOLUME ENCLOSED SUN'S PHOTOSPHERE FLOW PLASMA OUTWARD FROM INTO INTERPLANETARY SPACE SOLAR WIND HELIOSPHERE TENUOUS OUTERMOST ATMOSPHERE FILLED WITH SOLAR WIND PLASMA THIS OUTERMOST LAYER DEFINED BEGIN DISTANCE WHERE FLOW SOLAR WIND BECOMES SUPERALFVéNIC—THAT WHERE FLOW BECOMES FASTER THAN SPEED ALFVéN WAVES APPROXIMATELY SOLAR RADII TURBULENCE DYNAMIC FORCES HELIOSPHERE CANNOT AFFECT SHAPE SOLAR CORONA WITHIN BECAUSE INFORMATION ONLY TRAVEL SPEED ALFVéN WAVES SOLAR WIND TRAVELS OUTWARD CONTINUOUSLY THROUGH HELIOSPHERE FORMING SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD INTO SPIRAL SHAPE UNTIL IMPACTS HELIOPAUSE MORE THAN FROM DECEMBER VOYAGER PROBE PASSED THROUGH SHOCK FRONT THAT THOUGHT PART HELIOPAUSE LATE VOYAGER RECORDED MARKED INCREASE COSMIC COLLISIONS SHARP DROP LOWER ENERGY PARTICLES FROM SOLAR WIND WHICH SUGGESTED THAT PROBE PASSED THROUGH HELIOPAUSE ENTERED INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM PHOTONS NEUTRINOS ALSO SOLAR IRRADIANCE HIGH-ENERGY GAMMA PHOTONS INITIALLY RELEASED WITH FUSION REACTIONS CORE ALMOST IMMEDIATELY ABSORBED SOLAR PLASMA RADIATIVE ZONE USUALLY AFTER TRAVELING ONLY MILLIMETERS RE-EMISSION HAPPENS RANDOM DIRECTION USUALLY SLIGHTLY LOWER ENERGY WITH THIS SEQUENCE EMISSIONS ABSORPTIONS TAKES LONG TIME RADIATION REACH SUN'S SURFACE ESTIMATES PHOTON TRAVEL TIME RANGE BETWEEN YEARS CONTRAST TAKES ONLY SECONDS NEUTRINOS WHICH ACCOUNT ABOUT TOTAL ENERGY PRODUCTION REACH SURFACE BECAUSE ENERGY TRANSPORT PROCESS THAT INVOLVES PHOTONS THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM WITH MATTER TIME SCALE ENERGY TRANSPORT LONGER ORDER YEARS THIS TIME WOULD TAKE RETURN STABLE STATE RATE ENERGY GENERATION CORE WERE SUDDENLY CHANGED NEUTRINOS ALSO RELEASED FUSION REACTIONS CORE UNLIKE PHOTONS THEY RARELY INTERACT WITH MATTER ALMOST ABLE ESCAPE IMMEDIATELY MANY YEARS MEASUREMENTS NUMBER NEUTRINOS PRODUCED WERE LOWER THAN THEORIES PREDICTED FACTOR THIS DISCREPANCY RESOLVED THROUGH DISCOVERY EFFECTS NEUTRINO OSCILLATION EMITS NUMBER NEUTRINOS PREDICTED THEORY NEUTRINO DETECTORS WERE MISSING THEM BECAUSE NEUTRINOS CHANGED FLAVOR TIME THEY WERE DETECTED MAGNETIC ACTIVITY MAGNETIC FIELD ALSO STELLAR MAGNETIC FIELD SUNSPOTS LIST SOLAR CYCLES SOLAR PHENOMENA VISIBLE LIGHT PHOTOGRAPH SUNSPOT DECEMBER BUTTERFLY DIAGRAM SHOWING PAIRED SUNSPOT PATTERN GRAPH SUNSPOT AREA THIS FALSE-COLOR ULTRAVIOLET IMAGE SHOWS -CLASS SOLAR FLARE WHITE AREA UPPER LEFT SOLAR TSUNAMI WAVE-LIKE STRUCTURE UPPER RIGHT MULTIPLE FILAMENTS PLASMA FOLLOWING MAGNETIC FIELD RISING FROM STELLAR SURFACE HELIOSPHERIC CURRENT SHEET EXTENDS OUTER REACHES SOLAR SYSTEM RESULTS FROM INFLUENCE SUN'S ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD PLASMA INTERPLANETARY MEDIUM MAGNETIC FIELD THAT VARIES ACROSS SURFACE POLAR FIELD GAUSS WHEREAS FIELD TYPICALLY GAUSS FEATURES CALLED SUNSPOTS GAUSS SOLAR PROMINENCES MAGNETIC FIELD ALSO VARIES TIME LOCATION QUASI-PERIODIC -YEAR SOLAR CYCLE MOST PROMINENT VARIATION WHICH NUMBER SIZE SUNSPOTS WAXES WANES SUNSPOTS VISIBLE DARK PATCHES SUN'S PHOTOSPHERE CORRESPOND CONCENTRATIONS MAGNETIC FIELD WHERE CONVECTIVE TRANSPORT HEAT INHIBITED FROM SOLAR INTERIOR SURFACE RESULT SUNSPOTS SLIGHTLY COOLER THAN SURROUNDING PHOTOSPHERE THEY APPEAR DARK TYPICAL SOLAR MINIMUM SUNSPOTS VISIBLE OCCASIONALLY NONE SEEN THOSE THAT APPEAR HIGH SOLAR LATITUDES SOLAR CYCLE PROGRESSES TOWARDS MAXIMUM SUNSPOTS TEND FORM CLOSER SOLAR EQUATOR PHENOMENON KNOWN SPöRER'S LARGEST SUNSPOTS TENS THOUSANDS KILOMETERS ACROSS -YEAR SUNSPOT CYCLE HALF -YEAR BABCOCK–LEIGHTON DYNAMO CYCLE WHICH CORRESPONDS OSCILLATORY EXCHANGE ENERGY BETWEEN TOROIDAL POLOIDAL SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELDS SOLAR-CYCLE MAXIMUM EXTERNAL POLOIDAL DIPOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD NEAR DYNAMO-CYCLE MINIMUM STRENGTH INTERNAL TOROIDAL QUADRUPOLAR FIELD GENERATED THROUGH DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION WITHIN TACHOCLINE NEAR MAXIMUM STRENGTH THIS POINT DYNAMO CYCLE BUOYANT UPWELLING WITHIN CONVECTIVE ZONE FORCES EMERGENCE TOROIDAL MAGNETIC FIELD THROUGH PHOTOSPHERE GIVING RISE PAIRS SUNSPOTS ROUGHLY ALIGNED EAST–WEST HAVING FOOTPRINTS WITH OPPOSITE MAGNETIC POLARITIES MAGNETIC POLARITY SUNSPOT PAIRS ALTERNATES EVERY SOLAR CYCLE PHENOMENON KNOWN HALE CYCLE DURING SOLAR CYCLE'S DECLINING PHASE ENERGY SHIFTS FROM INTERNAL TOROIDAL MAGNETIC FIELD EXTERNAL POLOIDAL FIELD SUNSPOTS DIMINISH NUMBER SIZE SOLAR-CYCLE MINIMUM TOROIDAL FIELD CORRESPONDINGLY MINIMUM STRENGTH SUNSPOTS RELATIVELY RARE POLOIDAL FIELD MAXIMUM STRENGTH WITH RISE NEXT -YEAR SUNSPOT CYCLE DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION SHIFTS MAGNETIC ENERGY BACK FROM POLOIDAL TOROIDAL FIELD WITH POLARITY THAT OPPOSITE PREVIOUS CYCLE PROCESS CARRIES CONTINUOUSLY IDEALIZED SIMPLIFIED SCENARIO EACH -YEAR SUNSPOT CYCLE CORRESPONDS CHANGE THEN OVERALL POLARITY SUN'S LARGE-SCALE MAGNETIC FIELD SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD EXTENDS WELL BEYOND ITSELF ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING SOLAR WIND PLASMA CARRIES SUN'S MAGNETIC FIELD INTO SPACE FORMING WHAT CALLED INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD APPROXIMATION KNOWN IDEAL MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS PLASMA PARTICLES ONLY MOVE ALONG MAGNETIC FIELD LINES RESULT OUTWARD-FLOWING SOLAR WIND STRETCHES INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD OUTWARD FORCING INTO ROUGHLY RADIAL STRUCTURE SIMPLE DIPOLAR SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD WITH OPPOSITE HEMISPHERICAL POLARITIES EITHER SIDE SOLAR MAGNETIC EQUATOR THIN CURRENT SHEET FORMED SOLAR WIND GREAT DISTANCES ROTATION TWISTS DIPOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD CORRESPONDING CURRENT SHEET INTO ARCHIMEDEAN SPIRAL STRUCTURE CALLED PARKER SPIRAL INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD MUCH STRONGER THAN DIPOLE COMPONENT SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD SUN'S DIPOLE MAGNETIC FIELD PHOTOSPHERE REDUCES WITH INVERSE-CUBE DISTANCE LEADING PREDICTED MAGNETIC FIELD DISTANCE EARTH HOWEVER ACCORDING SPACECRAFT OBSERVATIONS INTERPLANETARY FIELD EARTH'S LOCATION AROUND ABOUT HUNDRED TIMES GREATER DIFFERENCE MAGNETIC FIELDS GENERATED ELECTRICAL CURRENTS PLASMA SURROUNDING VARIATION ACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS FROM SOLAR CYCLE VARIATION DURING LAST YEARS SUN'S MAGNETIC FIELD LEADS MANY EFFECTS THAT COLLECTIVELY CALLED SOLAR ACTIVITY SOLAR FLARES CORONAL-MASS EJECTIONS TEND OCCUR SUNSPOT GROUPS SLOWLY CHANGING HIGH-SPEED STREAMS SOLAR WIND EMITTED FROM CORONAL HOLES PHOTOSPHERIC SURFACE BOTH CORONAL-MASS EJECTIONS HIGH-SPEED STREAMS SOLAR WIND CARRY PLASMA INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD OUTWARD INTO SOLAR SYSTEM EFFECTS SOLAR ACTIVITY EARTH INCLUDE AURORAS MODERATE HIGH LATITUDES DISRUPTION RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ELECTRIC POWER SOLAR ACTIVITY THOUGHT HAVE PLAYED LARGE ROLE FORMATION EVOLUTION SOLAR SYSTEM WITH SOLAR-CYCLE MODULATION SUNSPOT NUMBER COMES CORRESPONDING MODULATION SPACE WEATHER CONDITIONS INCLUDING THOSE SURROUNDING EARTH WHERE TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AFFECTED DECEMBER TYPE SOLAR MAGNETIC EXPLOSION OBSERVED KNOWN FORCED MAGNETIC RECONNECTION PREVIOUSLY PROCESS CALLED SPONTANEOUS MAGNETIC RECONNECTION OBSERVED THAT SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD LINES DIVERGE EXPLOSIVELY THEN CONVERGE AGAIN INSTANTANEOUSLY FORCED MAGNETIC RECONNECTION SIMILAR TRIGGERED EXPLOSION CORONA LONG-TERM CHANGE LONG-TERM SECULAR CHANGE SUNSPOT NUMBER THOUGHT SOME SCIENTISTS CORRELATED WITH LONG-TERM CHANGE SOLAR IRRADIANCE WHICH TURN MIGHT INFLUENCE EARTH'S LONG-TERM CLIMATE EXAMPLE CENTURY SOLAR CYCLE APPEARED HAVE STOPPED ENTIRELY SEVERAL DECADES SUNSPOTS WERE OBSERVED DURING PERIOD KNOWN MAUNDER MINIMUM THIS COINCIDED TIME WITH LITTLE WHEN EUROPE EXPERIENCED UNUSUALLY COLD TEMPERATURES EARLIER EXTENDED MINIMA HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED THROUGH ANALYSIS TREE RINGS APPEAR HAVE COINCIDED WITH LOWER-THAN-AVERAGE GLOBAL TEMPERATURES RECENT THEORY CLAIMS THAT THERE MAGNETIC INSTABILITIES CORE THAT CAUSE FLUCTUATIONS WITH PERIODS EITHER YEARS THESE COULD PROVIDE BETTER EXPLANATION AGES THAN MILANKOVITCH CYCLES LIFE PHASES MAIN ARTICLES FORMATION EVOLUTION SOLAR SYSTEM STELLAR EVOLUTION TODAY ROUGHLY HALFWAY THROUGH MOST STABLE PART LIFE CHANGED DRAMATICALLY OVER FOUR BILLION YEARS WILL REMAIN FAIRLY STABLE MORE THAN FIVE BILLION MORE HOWEVER AFTER HYDROGEN FUSION CORE STOPPED WILL UNDERGO DRAMATIC CHANGES BOTH INTERNALLY EXTERNALLY FORMATION FORMED ABOUT BILLION YEARS FROM COLLAPSE PART GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUD THAT CONSISTED MOSTLY HYDROGEN HELIUM THAT PROBABLY GAVE BIRTH MANY OTHER STARS THIS ESTIMATED USING COMPUTER MODELS STELLAR EVOLUTION THROUGH NUCLEOCOSMOCHRONOLOGY RESULT CONSISTENT WITH RADIOMETRIC DATE OLDEST SOLAR SYSTEM MATERIAL BILLION YEARS STUDIES ANCIENT METEORITES REVEAL TRACES STABLE DAUGHTER NUCLEI SHORT-LIVED ISOTOPES SUCH IRON- THAT FORM ONLY EXPLODING SHORT-LIVED STARS THIS INDICATES THAT MORE SUPERNOVAE MUST HAVE OCCURRED NEAR LOCATION WHERE FORMED SHOCK WAVE FROM NEARBY SUPERNOVA WOULD HAVE TRIGGERED FORMATION COMPRESSING MATTER WITHIN MOLECULAR CLOUD CAUSING CERTAIN REGIONS COLLAPSE UNDER THEIR GRAVITY FRAGMENT CLOUD COLLAPSED ALSO BEGAN ROTATE CONSERVATION ANGULAR MOMENTUM HEAT WITH INCREASING PRESSURE MUCH MASS BECAME CONCENTRATED CENTER WHEREAS REST FLATTENED INTO DISK THAT WOULD BECOME PLANETS OTHER SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES GRAVITY PRESSURE WITHIN CORE CLOUD GENERATED HEAT ACCRETED MORE MATTER FROM SURROUNDING DISK EVENTUALLY TRIGGERING NUCLEAR FUSION HYPOTHESIZED STELLAR SIBLINGS HAVING FORMED SAME MOLECULAR CLOUD MAIN SEQUENCE EVOLUTION SUN'S LUMINOSITY RADIUS EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE COMPARED PRESENT AFTER RIBAS ABOUT HALFWAY THROUGH MAIN-SEQUENCE STAGE DURING WHICH NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS CORE FUSE HYDROGEN INTO HELIUM EACH SECOND MORE THAN FOUR MILLION TONNES MATTER CONVERTED INTO ENERGY WITHIN SUN'S CORE PRODUCING NEUTRINOS SOLAR RADIATION THIS RATE CONVERTED AROUND TIMES MASS EARTH INTO ENERGY ABOUT TOTAL MASS WILL SPEND TOTAL APPROXIMATELY BILLION YEARS MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR GRADUALLY BECOMING HOTTER DURING TIME MAIN SEQUENCE BECAUSE HELIUM ATOMS CORE OCCUPY LESS VOLUME THAN HYDROGEN ATOMS THAT WERE FUSED CORE THEREFORE SHRINKING ALLOWING OUTER LAYERS MOVE CLOSER CENTER EXPERIENCE STRONGER GRAVITATIONAL FORCE ACCORDING INVERSE-SQUARE THIS STRONGER FORCE INCREASES PRESSURE CORE WHICH RESISTED GRADUAL INCREASE RATE WHICH FUSION OCCURS THIS PROCESS SPEEDS CORE GRADUALLY BECOMES DENSER ESTIMATED THAT BECOME BRIGHTER LAST BILLION YEARS PRESENT INCREASING BRIGHTNESS ABOUT EVERY MILLION YEARS AFTER CORE HYDROGEN EXHAUSTION SIZE CURRENT MAIN SEQUENCE COMPARED ESTIMATED SIZE DURING RED-GIANT PHASE FUTURE DOES HAVE ENOUGH MASS EXPLODE SUPERNOVA INSTEAD WILL EXIT MAIN SEQUENCE APPROXIMATELY BILLION YEARS START TURN INTO GIANT GIANT WILL GROW LARGE THAT WILL ENGULF MERCURY VENUS PROBABLY EARTH EVEN BEFORE BECOMES GIANT LUMINOSITY WILL HAVE NEARLY DOUBLED EARTH WILL RECEIVE MUCH SUNLIGHT VENUS RECEIVES TODAY ONCE CORE HYDROGEN EXHAUSTED BILLION YEARS WILL EXPAND INTO SUBGIANT PHASE SLOWLY DOUBLE SIZE OVER ABOUT HALF BILLION YEARS WILL THEN EXPAND MORE RAPIDLY OVER ABOUT HALF BILLION YEARS UNTIL OVER HUNDRED TIMES LARGER THAN TODAY COUPLE THOUSAND TIMES MORE LUMINOUS THIS THEN STARTS RED-GIANT-BRANCH PHASE WHERE WILL SPEND AROUND BILLION YEARS LOSE AROUND THIRD MASS EVOLUTION SUN-LIKE STAR TRACK SOLAR MASS STAR HERTZSPRUNG–RUSSELL DIAGRAM SHOWN FROM MAIN SEQUENCE POST-ASYMPTOTIC-GIANT-BRANCH STAGE AFTER RED-GIANT BRANCH APPROXIMATELY MILLION YEARS ACTIVE LIFE LEFT MUCH HAPPENS FIRST CORE FULL DEGENERATE HELIUM IGNITES VIOLENTLY HELIUM FLASH WHERE ESTIMATED THAT CORE ITSELF SUN'S MASS WILL CONVERTED INTO CARBON WITHIN MATTER MINUTES THROUGH TRIPLE-ALPHA PROCESS THEN SHRINKS AROUND TIMES CURRENT SIZE TIMES LUMINOSITY WITH TEMPERATURE LITTLE LOWER THAN TODAY WILL THEN HAVE REACHED CLUMP HORIZONTAL BRANCH STAR SUN'S MASS DOES EVOLVE BLUEWARD ALONG HORIZONTAL BRANCH INSTEAD JUST BECOMES MODERATELY LARGER MORE LUMINOUS OVER ABOUT MILLION YEARS CONTINUES REACT HELIUM CORE WHEN HELIUM EXHAUSTED WILL REPEAT EXPANSION FOLLOWED WHEN HYDROGEN CORE EXHAUSTED EXCEPT THAT THIS TIME HAPPENS FASTER BECOMES LARGER MORE LUMINOUS THIS ASYMPTOTIC-GIANT-BRANCH PHASE ALTERNATELY REACTING HYDROGEN SHELL HELIUM DEEPER SHELL AFTER ABOUT MILLION YEARS EARLY ASYMPTOTIC GIANT BRANCH BECOMES INCREASINGLY UNSTABLE WITH RAPID MASS LOSS THERMAL PULSES THAT INCREASE SIZE LUMINOSITY HUNDRED YEARS EVERY YEARS THERMAL PULSES BECOME LARGER EACH TIME WITH LATER PULSES PUSHING LUMINOSITY MUCH TIMES CURRENT LEVEL RADIUS OVER ACCORDING MODEL EARTH'S ORBIT SHRINKING TIDAL FORCES EVENTUALLY DRAG FROM LOWER CHROMOSPHERE THAT WILL ENGULFED NEAR GIANT BRANCH PHASE MILLION YEARS AFTER MERCURY VENUS HAVE RESPECTIVELY SAME FATE MODELS VARY DEPENDING RATE TIMING MASS LOSS MODELS THAT HAVE HIGHER MASS LOSS RED-GIANT BRANCH PRODUCE SMALLER LESS LUMINOUS STARS ASYMPTOTIC GIANT BRANCH PERHAPS ONLY TIMES LUMINOSITY LESS THAN TIMES RADIUS FOUR THERMAL PULSES PREDICTED BEFORE COMPLETELY LOSES OUTER ENVELOPE STARTS MAKE PLANETARY NEBULA THAT PHASE—LASTING APPROXIMATELY YEARS—THE WILL ONLY HAVE ABOUT HALF CURRENT MASS POST-ASYMPTOTIC-GIANT-BRANCH EVOLUTION EVEN FASTER LUMINOSITY STAYS APPROXIMATELY CONSTANT TEMPERATURE INCREASES WITH EJECTED HALF SUN'S MASS BECOMING IONIZED INTO PLANETARY NEBULA EXPOSED CORE REACHES FINAL NAKED CORE WHITE DWARF WILL HAVE TEMPERATURE OVER CONTAIN ESTIMATED SUN'S PRESENT MASS PLANETARY NEBULA WILL DISPERSE ABOUT YEARS WHITE DWARF WILL SURVIVE TRILLIONS YEARS BEFORE FADING HYPOTHETICAL BLACK DWARF MOTION LOCATION ILLUSTRATION MILKY SHOWING LOCATION LIES CLOSE INNER MILKY WAY'S ORION LOCAL INTERSTELLAR CLOUD GOULD BELT DISTANCE KILOPARSECS FROM GALACTIC CENTER CONTAINED WITHIN LOCAL BUBBLE SPACE RAREFIED POSSIBLY PRODUCED SUPERNOVA REMNANT GEMINGA MULTIPLE SUPERNOVAE SUBGROUP PLEIADES MOVING GROUP DISTANCE BETWEEN LOCAL NEXT PERSEUS ABOUT LIGHT-YEARS THUS SOLAR SYSTEM FOUND WHAT SCIENTISTS CALL GALACTIC HABITABLE ZONE APEX SUN'S SOLAR APEX DIRECTION THAT TRAVELS RELATIVE OTHER NEARBY STARS THIS MOTION TOWARDS POINT CONSTELLATION HERCULES NEAR STAR VEGA WITHIN THERE KNOWN STARS SYSTEMS INCLUDING SINGLE STARS ESTIMATED THAT FURTHER SYSTEMS WITHIN THIS RANGE HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED THERE STARS WHICH AROUND KNOWN NUMBER SUBSTELLAR OBJECTS THAT VOLUME EXPECTED COMPARABLE NUMBER STARS NEAREST STELLAR SYSTEMS WITHIN LIGHT-YEARS FROM EARTH CLOSEST BEING DWARF PROXIMA CENTAURI APPROXIMATELY LIGHT-YEARS RANKS FOURTH MASS ORBIT MILKY ORBITS CENTER MILKY PRESENTLY MOVING DIRECTION CONSTELLATION CYGNUS SIMPLE MODEL MOTION STAR GALAXY GIVES GALACTIC COORDINATES DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC KAPPA KAPPA FRAC KAPPA DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC KAPPA KAPPA FRAC KAPPA DISPLAYSTYLE LEFT FRAC RIGHT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA KAPPA FRAC OMEGA KAPPA KAPPA DISPLAYSTYLE LEFT FRAC RIGHT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA KAPPA FRAC OMEGA KAPPA KAPPA DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC WHERE RESPECTIVE VELOCITIES WITH RESPECT LOCAL STANDARD REST OORT CONSTANTS DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA ANGULAR VELOCITY GALACTIC ROTATION LOCAL STANDARD REST DISPLAYSTYLE KAPPA SQRT OMEGA DISPLAYSTYLE KAPPA SQRT OMEGA EPICYCLIC FREQUENCY VERTICAL OSCILLATION FREQUENCY PRESENT VALUES ESTIMATED DISPLAYSTYLE DISPLAYSTYLE ESTIMATES OTHER CONSTANTS TAKE ZERO ESTIMATED PARSECS THIS MODEL IMPLIES THAT CIRCULATES AROUND POINT THAT ITSELF GOING AROUND GALAXY PERIOD SUN'S CIRCULATION AROUND POINT DISPLAYSTYLE KAPPA DISPLAYSTYLE KAPPA WHICH USING EQUIVALENCE THAT PARSEC EQUALS TIMES MILLION YEARS COMES MILLION YEARS SHORTER THAN TIME TAKES POINT AROUND GALAXY COORDINATES DESCRIBES ELLIPSE AROUND POINT WHOSE LENGTH DIRECTION DISPLAYSTYLE TIMES SQRT LEFT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA RIGHT LEFT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA RIGHT TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE TIMES SQRT LEFT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA RIGHT LEFT FRAC OMEGA KAPPA RIGHT TEXT PARSEC WHOSE WIDTH DIRECTION DISPLAYSTYLE TIMES SQRT LEFT FRAC KAPPA RIGHT LEFT FRAC RIGHT TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE TIMES SQRT LEFT FRAC KAPPA RIGHT LEFT FRAC RIGHT TEXT PARSEC RATIO LENGTH WIDTH THIS ELLIPSE SAME STARS NEIGHBORHOOD DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA KAPPA APPROX DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA KAPPA APPROX MOVING POINT PRESENTLY DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC OMEGA KAPPA TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE FRAC OMEGA KAPPA TEXT PARSEC OSCILLATION DIRECTION TAKES DISPLAYSTYLE SQRT LEFT FRAC RIGHT TEXT PARSEC DISPLAYSTYLE SQRT LEFT FRAC RIGHT TEXT PARSEC ABOVE GALACTIC PLANE SAME DISTANCE BELOW WITH PERIOD DISPLAYSTYLE DISPLAYSTYLE MILLION YEARS APPROXIMATELY TIMES ORBIT ALTHOUGH DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA MILLION YEARS VALUE DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA OMEGA POINT AROUND WHICH CIRCULATES DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA APPROX OMEGA FRAC DELTA APPROX TEXT DISPLAYSTYLE OMEGA APPROX OMEGA FRAC DELTA APPROX TEXT OORT CONSTANTS CORRESPONDING MILLION YEARS THIS TIME THAT POINT TAKES ONCE AROUND GALAXY OTHER STARS WITH SAME VALUE DISPLAYSTYLE DISPLAYSTYLE HAVE TAKE SAME AMOUNT TIME AROUND GALAXY THUS REMAIN SAME GENERAL VICINITY SUN'S ORBIT AROUND MILKY PERTURBED NON-UNIFORM MASS DISTRIBUTION MILKY SUCH THAT BETWEEN GALACTIC SPIRAL ARMS BEEN ARGUED THAT SUN'S PASSAGE THROUGH HIGHER DENSITY SPIRAL ARMS OFTEN COINCIDES WITH MASS EXTINCTIONS EARTH PERHAPS INCREASED IMPACT EVENTS TAKES SOLAR SYSTEM ABOUT MILLION YEARS COMPLETE ORBIT THROUGH MILKY GALACTIC YEAR THOUGHT HAVE COMPLETED ORBITS DURING LIFETIME ORBITAL SPEED SOLAR SYSTEM ABOUT CENTER MILKY APPROXIMATELY THIS SPEED TAKES AROUND YEARS SOLAR SYSTEM TRAVEL DISTANCE LIGHT-YEAR DAYS TRAVEL MILKY MOVING WITH RESPECT COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION DIRECTION CONSTELLATION HYDRA WITH SPEED SUN'S RESULTANT VELOCITY WITH RESPECT ABOUT DIRECTION CRATER MOTION SOLAR SYSTEM APPARENT MOTION SOLAR SYSTEM BARYCENTRE WITH RESPECT ACTUALLY THAT MOVES MOVED GRAVITATIONAL PULL PLANETS THINK BARYCENTRE SOLAR SYSTEM BEING STATIONARY MOVING STEADY MOTION AROUND GALAXY CENTRE ALWAYS WITHIN SOLAR RADII BARYCENTRE THIS MOTION MAINLY JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE SOME PERIODS SEVERAL DECADES MOTION RATHER REGULAR FORMING TREFOIL PATTERN WHEREAS BETWEEN THESE PERIODS APPEARS MORE CHAOTIC AFTER YEARS NINE TIMES SYNODIC PERIOD JUPITER SATURN PATTERN MORE LESS REPEATS ROTATED ABOUT ORBITS INNER PLANETS INCLUDING EARTH SIMILARLY DISPLACED SAME GRAVIATIONAL FORCES MOVEMENT LITTLE EFFECT RELATIVE POSITIONS EARTH SOLAR IRRADIANCE EARTH FUNCTION TIME THEORETICAL PROBLEMS FULL STEREO SPACECRAFT CORONAL HEATING PROBLEM MAIN ARTICLE STELLAR CORONA TEMPERATURE PHOTOSPHERE APPROXIMATELY WHEREAS TEMPERATURE CORONA REACHES HIGH TEMPERATURE CORONA SHOWS THAT HEATED SOMETHING OTHER THAN DIRECT HEAT CONDUCTION FROM PHOTOSPHERE THOUGHT THAT ENERGY NECESSARY HEAT CORONA PROVIDED TURBULENT MOTION CONVECTION ZONE BELOW PHOTOSPHERE MAIN MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED EXPLAIN CORONAL HEATING FIRST WAVE HEATING WHICH SOUND GRAVITATIONAL MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC WAVES PRODUCED TURBULENCE CONVECTION ZONE THESE WAVES TRAVEL UPWARD DISSIPATE CORONA DEPOSITING THEIR ENERGY AMBIENT MATTER FORM HEAT OTHER MAGNETIC HEATING WHICH MAGNETIC ENERGY CONTINUOUSLY BUILT PHOTOSPHERIC MOTION RELEASED THROUGH MAGNETIC RECONNECTION FORM LARGE SOLAR FLARES MYRIAD SIMILAR SMALLER EVENTS—NANOFLARES CURRENTLY UNCLEAR WHETHER WAVES EFFICIENT HEATING MECHANISM WAVES EXCEPT ALFVéN WAVES HAVE BEEN FOUND DISSIPATE REFRACT BEFORE REACHING CORONA ADDITION ALFVéN WAVES EASILY DISSIPATE CORONA CURRENT RESEARCH FOCUS THEREFORE SHIFTED TOWARDS FLARE HEATING MECHANISMS FAINT YOUNG PROBLEM MAIN ARTICLE FAINT YOUNG PARADOX THEORETICAL MODELS SUN'S DEVELOPMENT SUGGEST THAT BILLION YEARS DURING ARCHEAN ONLY ABOUT BRIGHT TODAY SUCH WEAK STAR WOULD HAVE BEEN ABLE SUSTAIN LIQUID WATER EARTH'S SURFACE THUS LIFE SHOULD HAVE BEEN ABLE DEVELOP HOWEVER GEOLOGICAL RECORD DEMONSTRATES THAT EARTH REMAINED FAIRLY CONSTANT TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT HISTORY THAT YOUNG EARTH SOMEWHAT WARMER THAN TODAY THEORY AMONG SCIENTISTS THAT ATMOSPHERE YOUNG EARTH CONTAINED MUCH LARGER QUANTITIES GREENHOUSE GASES SUCH CARBON DIOXIDE METHANE THAN PRESENT TODAY WHICH TRAPPED ENOUGH HEAT COMPENSATE SMALLER AMOUNT SOLAR ENERGY REACHING HOWEVER EXAMINATION ARCHAEAN SEDIMENTS APPEARS INCONSISTENT WITH HYPOTHESIS HIGH GREENHOUSE CONCENTRATIONS INSTEAD MODERATE TEMPERATURE RANGE EXPLAINED LOWER SURFACE ALBEDO BROUGHT ABOUT LESS CONTINENTAL AREA LACK BIOLOGICALLY INDUCED CLOUD CONDENSATION NUCLEI THIS WOULD HAVE INCREASED ABSORPTION SOLAR ENERGY THEREBY COMPENSATING LOWER SOLAR OUTPUT OBSERVATIONAL HISTORY ENORMOUS EFFECT EARTH BEEN RECOGNIZED SINCE PREHISTORIC TIMES BEEN REGARDED SOME CULTURES SOLAR DEITY EARLY UNDERSTANDING TRUNDHOLM CHARIOT PULLED HORSE SCULPTURE BELIEVED ILLUSTRATING IMPORTANT PART NORDIC BRONZE MYTHOLOGY SCULPTURE PROBABLY FROM AROUND DISPLAYED NATIONAL MUSEUM DENMARK ALSO CULTURE BEEN OBJECT VENERATION MANY CULTURES THROUGHOUT HUMAN HISTORY HUMANITY'S MOST FUNDAMENTAL UNDERSTANDING LUMINOUS DISK WHOSE PRESENCE ABOVE HORIZON CREATES WHOSE ABSENCE CAUSES NIGHT MANY PREHISTORIC ANCIENT CULTURES THOUGHT SOLAR DEITY OTHER SUPERNATURAL ENTITY WORSHIP CENTRAL CIVILIZATIONS SUCH ANCIENT EGYPTIANS INCA SOUTH AMERICA AZTECS WHAT MEXICO RELIGIONS SUCH HINDUISM STILL CONSIDERED MANY ANCIENT MONUMENTS WERE CONSTRUCTED WITH SOLAR PHENOMENA MIND EXAMPLE STONE MEGALITHS ACCURATELY MARK SUMMER WINTER SOLSTICE SOME MOST PROMINENT MEGALITHS LOCATED NABTA PLAYA EGYPT MNAJDRA MALTA STONEHENGE ENGLAND NEWGRANGE PREHISTORIC HUMAN-BUILT MOUNT IRELAND DESIGNED DETECT WINTER SOLSTICE PYRAMID CASTILLO CHICHéN ITZá MEXICO DESIGNED CAST SHADOWS SHAPE SERPENTS CLIMBING PYRAMID VERNAL AUTUMNAL EQUINOXES EGYPTIANS PORTRAYED BEING CARRIED ACROSS SOLAR BARQUE ACCOMPANIED LESSER GODS GREEKS HELIOS CARRIED CHARIOT DRAWN FIERY HORSES FROM REIGN ELAGABALUS LATE ROMAN EMPIRE SUN'S BIRTHDAY HOLIDAY CELEBRATED INVICTUS LITERALLY UNCONQUERED SOON AFTER WINTER SOLSTICE WHICH HAVE BEEN ANTECEDENT CHRISTMAS REGARDING FIXED STARS APPEARS FROM EARTH REVOLVE ONCE YEAR ALONG ECLIPTIC THROUGH ZODIAC GREEK ASTRONOMERS CATEGORIZED SEVEN PLANETS GREEK PLANETES WANDERER NAMING DAYS WEEKS AFTER SEVEN PLANETS DATES ROMAN DEVELOPMENT SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING EARLY FIRST MILLENNIUM BABYLONIAN ASTRONOMERS OBSERVED THAT SUN'S MOTION ALONG ECLIPTIC UNIFORM THOUGH THEY KNOW TODAY KNOWN THAT THIS MOVEMENT EARTH ELLIPTIC ORBIT AROUND WITH EARTH MOVING FASTER WHEN NEARER PERIHELION MOVING SLOWER WHEN FARTHER AWAY APHELION FIRST PEOPLE OFFER SCIENTIFIC PHILOSOPHICAL EXPLANATION GREEK PHILOSOPHER ANAXAGORAS REASONED THAT CHARIOT HELIOS INSTEAD GIANT FLAMING BALL METAL EVEN LARGER THAN LAND PELOPONNESUS THAT MOON REFLECTED LIGHT TEACHING THIS HERESY IMPRISONED AUTHORITIES SENTENCED DEATH THOUGH LATER RELEASED THROUGH INTERVENTION PERICLES ERATOSTHENES ESTIMATED DISTANCE BETWEEN EARTH CENTURY STADIA MYRIADS TRANSLATION WHICH AMBIGUOUS IMPLYING EITHER STADIA STADIA MILLION KILOMETERS LATTER VALUE CORRECT WITHIN PERCENT CENTURY PTOLEMY ESTIMATED DISTANCE TIMES RADIUS EARTH APPROXIMATELY MILLION KILOMETERS THEORY THAT CENTER AROUND WHICH PLANETS ORBIT FIRST PROPOSED ANCIENT GREEK ARISTARCHUS SAMOS CENTURY LATER ADOPTED SELEUCUS SELEUCIA HELIOCENTRISM THIS VIEW DEVELOPED MORE DETAILED MATHEMATICAL MODEL HELIOCENTRIC SYSTEM CENTURY NICOLAUS COPERNICUS OBSERVATIONS SUNSPOTS WERE RECORDED DURING DYNASTY BC–AD CHINESE ASTRONOMERS MAINTAINED RECORDS THESE OBSERVATIONS CENTURIES AVERROES ALSO PROVIDED DESCRIPTION SUNSPOTS CENTURY INVENTION TELESCOPE EARLY CENTURY PERMITTED DETAILED OBSERVATIONS SUNSPOTS THOMAS HARRIOT GALILEO GALILEI OTHER ASTRONOMERS GALILEO POSITED THAT SUNSPOTS WERE SURFACE RATHER THAN SMALL OBJECTS PASSING BETWEEN EARTH ARABIC ASTRONOMICAL CONTRIBUTIONS INCLUDE AL-BATTANI'S DISCOVERY THAT DIRECTION SUN'S APOGEE PLACE SUN'S ORBIT AGAINST FIXED STARS WHERE SEEMS MOVING SLOWEST CHANGING MODERN HELIOCENTRIC TERMS THIS CAUSED GRADUAL MOTION APHELION EARTH'S ORBIT YUNUS OBSERVED MORE THAN ENTRIES SUN'S POSITION MANY YEARS USING LARGE ASTROLABE FROM EDITION GUIDO BONATTI'S LIBER ASTRONOMIAE FROM OBSERVATION TRANSIT VENUS PERSIAN ASTRONOMER POLYMATH SINA CONCLUDED THAT VENUS CLOSER EARTH THAN GIOVANNI CASSINI JEAN RICHER DETERMINED DISTANCE MARS WERE THEREBY ABLE CALCULATE DISTANCE ISAAC NEWTON OBSERVED SUN'S LIGHT USING PRISM SHOWED THAT MADE LIGHT MANY COLORS WILLIAM HERSCHEL DISCOVERED INFRARED RADIATION BEYOND PART SOLAR SPECTRUM CENTURY ADVANCEMENT SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES JOSEPH FRAUNHOFER RECORDED MORE THAN ABSORPTION LINES SPECTRUM STRONGEST WHICH STILL OFTEN REFERRED FRAUNHOFER LINES EARLY YEARS MODERN SCIENTIFIC SOURCE SUN'S ENERGY SIGNIFICANT PUZZLE LORD KELVIN SUGGESTED THAT GRADUALLY COOLING LIQUID BODY THAT RADIATING INTERNAL STORE HEAT KELVIN HERMANN HELMHOLTZ THEN PROPOSED GRAVITATIONAL CONTRACTION MECHANISM EXPLAIN ENERGY OUTPUT RESULTING ESTIMATE ONLY MILLION YEARS WELL SHORT TIME SPAN LEAST MILLION YEARS SUGGESTED SOME GEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES THAT TIME JOSEPH LOCKYER DISCOVERED HELIUM SOLAR SPECTRUM PROPOSED METEORITIC HYPOTHESIS FORMATION EVOLUTION UNTIL DOCUMENTED SOLUTION OFFERED ERNEST RUTHERFORD SUGGESTED THAT SUN'S OUTPUT COULD MAINTAINED INTERNAL SOURCE HEAT SUGGESTED RADIOACTIVE DECAY SOURCE HOWEVER WOULD ALBERT EINSTEIN WOULD PROVIDE ESSENTIAL CLUE SOURCE SUN'S ENERGY OUTPUT WITH MASS–ENERGY EQUIVALENCE RELATION ARTHUR EDDINGTON PROPOSED THAT PRESSURES TEMPERATURES CORE COULD PRODUCE NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION THAT MERGED HYDROGEN PROTONS INTO HELIUM NUCLEI RESULTING PRODUCTION ENERGY FROM CHANGE MASS PREPONDERANCE HYDROGEN CONFIRMED CECILIA PAYNE USING IONIZATION THEORY DEVELOPED MEGHNAD SAHA THEORETICAL CONCEPT FUSION DEVELOPED ASTROPHYSICISTS SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR HANS BETHE HANS BETHE CALCULATED DETAILS MAIN ENERGY-PRODUCING NUCLEAR REACTIONS THAT POWER MARGARET BURBIDGE GEOFFREY BURBIDGE WILLIAM FOWLER FRED HOYLE SHOWED THAT MOST ELEMENTS UNIVERSE HAVE BEEN SYNTHESIZED NUCLEAR REACTIONS INSIDE STARS SOME LIKE SOLAR SPACE MISSIONS ALSO SOLAR OBSERVATORY GIVING LARGE GEOMAGNETIC STORM MARCH FILE MOON TRANSIT LARGE LUNAR TRANSIT CAPTURED DURING CALIBRATION STEREO ULTRAVIOLET IMAGING CAMERAS FIRST SATELLITES DESIGNED LONG TERM OBSERVATION FROM INTERPLANETARY SPACE WERE NASA'S PIONEERS WHICH WERE LAUNCHED BETWEEN THESE PROBES ORBITED DISTANCE SIMILAR THAT EARTH MADE FIRST DETAILED MEASUREMENTS SOLAR WIND SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD PIONEER OPERATED PARTICULARLY LONG TIME TRANSMITTING DATA UNTIL HELIOS SPACECRAFT SKYLAB APOLLO TELESCOPE MOUNT PROVIDED SCIENTISTS WITH SIGNIFICANT DATA SOLAR WIND SOLAR CORONA HELIOS PROBES WERE –GERMAN COLLABORATIONS THAT STUDIED SOLAR WIND FROM ORBIT CARRYING SPACECRAFT INSIDE MERCURY'S ORBIT PERIHELION SKYLAB SPACE STATION LAUNCHED NASA INCLUDED SOLAR OBSERVATORY MODULE CALLED APOLLO TELESCOPE MOUNT THAT OPERATED ASTRONAUTS RESIDENT STATION SKYLAB MADE FIRST TIME-RESOLVED OBSERVATIONS SOLAR TRANSITION REGION ULTRAVIOLET EMISSIONS FROM SOLAR CORONA DISCOVERIES INCLUDED FIRST OBSERVATIONS CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS THEN CALLED CORONAL TRANSIENTS CORONAL HOLES KNOWN INTIMATELY ASSOCIATED WITH SOLAR WIND CORONAL HOLE FORMS QUESTION MARK DECEMBER SOLAR MAXIMUM MISSION LAUNCHED NASA THIS SPACECRAFT DESIGNED OBSERVE GAMMA RAYS X-RAYS RADIATION FROM SOLAR FLARES DURING TIME HIGH SOLAR ACTIVITY SOLAR LUMINOSITY JUST MONTHS AFTER LAUNCH HOWEVER ELECTRONICS FAILURE CAUSED PROBE INTO STANDBY MODE SPENT NEXT THREE YEARS THIS INACTIVE STATE SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER MISSION STS- RETRIEVED SATELLITE REPAIRED ELECTRONICS BEFORE RE-RELEASING INTO ORBIT SOLAR MAXIMUM MISSION SUBSEQUENTLY ACQUIRED THOUSANDS IMAGES SOLAR CORONA BEFORE RE-ENTERING EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE JUNE LAUNCHED JAPAN'S YOHKOH SUNBEAM SATELLITE OBSERVED SOLAR FLARES X-RAY WAVELENGTHS MISSION DATA ALLOWED SCIENTISTS IDENTIFY SEVERAL DIFFERENT TYPES FLARES DEMONSTRATED THAT CORONA AWAY FROM REGIONS PEAK ACTIVITY MUCH MORE DYNAMIC ACTIVE THAN PREVIOUSLY BEEN SUPPOSED YOHKOH OBSERVED ENTIRE SOLAR CYCLE WENT INTO STANDBY MODE WHEN ANNULAR ECLIPSE CAUSED LOSE LOCK DESTROYED ATMOSPHERIC RE-ENTRY MOST IMPORTANT SOLAR MISSIONS DATE BEEN SOLAR HELIOSPHERIC OBSERVATORY JOINTLY BUILT EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY NASA LAUNCHED DECEMBER ORIGINALLY INTENDED SERVE TWO-YEAR MISSION MISSION EXTENSION THROUGH APPROVED OCTOBER PROVEN USEFUL THAT FOLLOW-ON MISSION SOLAR DYNAMICS OBSERVATORY LAUNCHED FEBRUARY SITUATED LAGRANGIAN POINT BETWEEN EARTH WHICH GRAVITATIONAL PULL FROM BOTH EQUAL SOHO PROVIDED CONSTANT VIEW MANY WAVELENGTHS SINCE LAUNCH BESIDES DIRECT SOLAR OBSERVATION SOHO ENABLED DISCOVERY LARGE NUMBER COMETS MOSTLY TINY SUNGRAZING COMETS THAT INCINERATE THEY PASS SOLAR PROMINENCE ERUPTS AUGUST CAPTURED THESE SATELLITES HAVE OBSERVED FROM PLANE ECLIPTIC HAVE ONLY OBSERVED EQUATORIAL REGIONS DETAIL ULYSSES PROBE LAUNCHED STUDY SUN'S POLAR REGIONS FIRST TRAVELED JUPITER SLINGSHOT INTO ORBIT THAT WOULD TAKE ABOVE PLANE ECLIPTIC ONCE ULYSSES SCHEDULED ORBIT BEGAN OBSERVING SOLAR WIND MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH HIGH SOLAR LATITUDES FINDING THAT SOLAR WIND FROM HIGH LATITUDES MOVING ABOUT WHICH SLOWER THAN EXPECTED THAT THERE WERE LARGE MAGNETIC WAVES EMERGING FROM HIGH LATITUDES THAT SCATTERED GALACTIC COSMIC RAYS ELEMENTAL ABUNDANCES PHOTOSPHERE WELL KNOWN FROM SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES COMPOSITION INTERIOR MORE POORLY UNDERSTOOD SOLAR WIND SAMPLE RETURN MISSION GENESIS DESIGNED ALLOW ASTRONOMERS DIRECTLY MEASURE COMPOSITION SOLAR MATERIAL SOLAR TERRESTRIAL RELATIONS OBSERVATORY STEREO MISSION LAUNCHED OCTOBER IDENTICAL SPACECRAFT WERE LAUNCHED INTO ORBITS THAT CAUSE THEM RESPECTIVELY PULL FURTHER AHEAD FALL GRADUALLY BEHIND EARTH THIS ENABLES STEREOSCOPIC IMAGING SOLAR PHENOMENA SUCH CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS PARKER SOLAR PROBE LAUNCHED ABOARD DELTA HEAVY ROCKET WILL REACH PERIGEE MAKING CLOSEST-ORBITING MANMADE SATELLITE FIRST SPACECRAFT INTO SOLAR CORONA INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION SCHEDULED LAUNCH SATELLITE NAMED ADITYA MAIN INSTRUMENT WILL CORONAGRAPH STUDYING DYNAMICS SOLAR CORONA OBSERVATION EFFECTS DURING CERTAIN ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS BECOMES VISIBLE NAKED OBSERVED WITHOUT STRESS EYES CLICK THIS PHOTO FULL CYCLE SUNSET OBSERVED FROM HIGH PLAINS MOJAVE DESERT SEEN FROM EARTH ORBIT OVERLOOKING INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION THIS SUNLIGHT FILTERED LOWER ATMOSPHERE WHICH BLOCKS MUCH SOLAR SPECTRUM BRIGHTNESS CAUSE PAIN FROM LOOKING WITH NAKED HOWEVER DOING BRIEF PERIODS HAZARDOUS NORMAL NON-DILATED EYES LOOKING DIRECTLY CAUSES PHOSPHENE VISUAL ARTIFACTS TEMPORARY PARTIAL BLINDNESS ALSO DELIVERS ABOUT MILLIWATTS SUNLIGHT RETINA SLIGHTLY HEATING POTENTIALLY CAUSING DAMAGE EYES THAT CANNOT RESPOND PROPERLY BRIGHTNESS EXPOSURE GRADUALLY YELLOWS LENS OVER PERIOD YEARS THOUGHT CONTRIBUTE FORMATION CATARACTS THIS DEPENDS GENERAL EXPOSURE SOLAR WHETHER LOOKS DIRECTLY LONG-DURATION VIEWING DIRECT WITH NAKED BEGIN CAUSE UV-INDUCED SUNBURN-LIKE LESIONS RETINA AFTER ABOUT SECONDS PARTICULARLY UNDER CONDITIONS WHERE LIGHT FROM INTENSE WELL FOCUSED CONDITIONS WORSENED YOUNG EYES LENS IMPLANTS WHICH ADMIT MORE THAN AGING NATURAL EYES ANGLES NEAR ZENITH OBSERVING LOCATIONS HIGH ALTITUDE VIEWING THROUGH LIGHT-CONCENTRATING OPTICS SUCH BINOCULARS RESULT PERMANENT DAMAGE RETINA WITHOUT APPROPRIATE FILTER THAT BLOCKS SUBSTANTIALLY DIMS SUNLIGHT WHEN USING ATTENUATING FILTER VIEW VIEWER CAUTIONED FILTER SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED THAT SOME IMPROVISED FILTERS THAT PASS RAYS ACTUALLY HARM HIGH BRIGHTNESS LEVELS HERSCHEL WEDGES ALSO CALLED SOLAR DIAGONALS EFFECTIVE INEXPENSIVE SMALL TELESCOPES SUNLIGHT THAT DESTINED EYEPIECE REFLECTED FROM UNSILVERED SURFACE PIECE GLASS ONLY VERY SMALL FRACTION INCIDENT LIGHT REFLECTED REST PASSES THROUGH GLASS LEAVES INSTRUMENT GLASS BREAKS BECAUSE HEAT LIGHT REFLECTED MAKING DEVICE FAIL-SAFE SIMPLE FILTERS MADE DARKENED GLASS ALLOW FULL INTENSITY SUNLIGHT PASS THROUGH THEY BREAK ENDANGERING OBSERVER'S EYESIGHT UNFILTERED BINOCULARS DELIVER HUNDREDS TIMES MUCH ENERGY USING NAKED POSSIBLY CAUSING IMMEDIATE DAMAGE CLAIMED THAT EVEN BRIEF GLANCES MIDDAY THROUGH UNFILTERED TELESCOPE CAUSE PERMANENT DAMAGE HALO WITH DOGS PARTIAL SOLAR ECLIPSES HAZARDOUS VIEW BECAUSE EYE'S PUPIL ADAPTED UNUSUALLY HIGH VISUAL CONTRAST PUPIL DILATES ACCORDING TOTAL AMOUNT LIGHT FIELD VIEW BRIGHTEST OBJECT FIELD DURING PARTIAL ECLIPSES MOST SUNLIGHT BLOCKED MOON PASSING FRONT UNCOVERED PARTS PHOTOSPHERE HAVE SAME SURFACE BRIGHTNESS DURING NORMAL OVERALL GLOOM PUPIL EXPANDS FROM EACH RETINAL CELL EXPOSED SOLAR IMAGE RECEIVES TIMES MORE LIGHT THAN WOULD LOOKING NON-ECLIPSED THIS DAMAGE KILL THOSE CELLS RESULTING SMALL PERMANENT BLIND SPOTS VIEWER HAZARD INSIDIOUS INEXPERIENCED OBSERVERS CHILDREN BECAUSE THERE PERCEPTION PAIN IMMEDIATELY OBVIOUS THAT ONE'S VISION BEING DESTROYED SUNRISE SUNSET THAILAND SUMMER DURING SUNRISE SUNSET SUNLIGHT ATTENUATED BECAUSE RAYLEIGH SCATTERING SCATTERING FROM PARTICULARLY LONG PASSAGE THROUGH EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE SOMETIMES FAINT ENOUGH VIEWED COMFORTABLY WITH NAKED SAFELY WITH OPTICS PROVIDED THERE RISK BRIGHT SUNLIGHT SUDDENLY APPEARING THROUGH BREAK BETWEEN CLOUDS HAZY CONDITIONS ATMOSPHERIC DUST HIGH HUMIDITY CONTRIBUTE THIS ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION OPTICAL PHENOMENON KNOWN GREEN FLASH SOMETIMES SEEN SHORTLY AFTER SUNSET BEFORE SUNRISE FLASH CAUSED LIGHT FROM JUST BELOW HORIZON BEING BENT USUALLY THROUGH TEMPERATURE INVERSION TOWARDS OBSERVER LIGHT SHORTER WAVELENGTHS VIOLET BLUE GREEN BENT MORE THAN THAT LONGER WAVELENGTHS YELLOW ORANGE VIOLET BLUE LIGHT SCATTERED MORE LEAVING LIGHT THAT PERCEIVED GREEN ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT FROM ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES USED SANITIZE TOOLS WATER ALSO CAUSES SUNBURN OTHER BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS SUCH PRODUCTION VITAMIN TANNING ALSO MAIN CAUSE SKIN CANCER ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT STRONGLY ATTENUATED EARTH'S OZONE LAYER THAT AMOUNT VARIES GREATLY WITH LATITUDE BEEN PARTIALLY RESPONSIBLE MANY BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS INCLUDING VARIATIONS HUMAN SKIN COLOR DIFFERENT REGIONS EARTH PLANETARY SYSTEM MAIN ARTICLE SOLAR SYSTEM EIGHT KNOWN PLANETS THIS INCLUDES FOUR TERRESTRIAL PLANETS MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS GIANTS JUPITER SATURN GIANTS URANUS NEPTUNE SOLAR SYSTEM ALSO LEAST FIVE DWARF PLANETS ASTEROID BELT NUMEROUS COMETS LARGE NUMBER BODIES WHICH BEYOND ORBIT NEPTUNE RELIGIOUS ASPECTS MAIN ARTICLE SOLAR DEITY SOLAR DEITIES PLAY MAJOR ROLE MANY WORLD RELIGIONS MYTHOLOGIES ANCIENT SUMERIANS BELIEVED THAT JUSTICE TWIN BROTHER INANNA QUEEN HEAVEN IDENTIFIED PLANET VENUS LATER IDENTIFIED WITH EAST SEMITIC SHAMASH REGARDED HELPER-DEITY AIDED THOSE DISTRESS ICONOGRAPHY USUALLY PORTRAYED WITH LONG BEARD CLUTCHING WHICH REPRESENTED ROLE DISPENSER JUSTICE FROM LEAST FOURTH DYNASTY ANCIENT EGYPT WORSHIPPED PORTRAYED FALCON-HEADED DIVINITY SURMOUNTED SOLAR DISK SURROUNDED SERPENT EMPIRE PERIOD BECAME IDENTIFIED WITH DUNG BEETLE WHOSE SPHERICAL BALL DUNG IDENTIFIED WITH FORM DISC ATEN BRIEF RESURGENCE DURING AMARNA PERIOD WHEN AGAIN BECAME PREEMINENT ONLY DIVINITY PHARAOH AKHENATON PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN RELIGION PERSONIFIED GODDESS DERIVATIVES THIS GODDESS INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES INCLUDE NORSE SANSKRIT SURYA GAULISH SULIS LITHUANIAN SAUL SLAVIC SOLNTSE ANCIENT GREEK RELIGION DEITY MALE HELIOS TRACES EARLIER FEMALE SOLAR DEITY PRESERVED HELEN TROY LATER TIMES HELIOS SYNCRETIZED WITH APOLLO BIBLE MALACHI MENTIONS RIGHTEOUSNESS SOMETIMES TRANSLATED JUSTICE WHICH SOME CHRISTIANS HAVE INTERPRETED REFERENCE MESSIAH CHRIST ANCIENT ROMAN CULTURE SUNDAY ADOPTED SABBATH CHRISTIANS HAVE JEWISH BACKGROUND SYMBOL LIGHT PAGAN DEVICE ADOPTED CHRISTIANS PERHAPS MOST IMPORTANT THAT COME FROM JEWISH TRADITIONS PAGANISM SOURCE LIFE GIVING WARMTH ILLUMINATION MANKIND CENTER POPULAR CULT AMONG ROMANS WOULD STAND DAWN CATCH FIRST RAYS SUNSHINE THEY PRAYED CELEBRATION WINTER SOLSTICE WHICH INFLUENCED CHRISTMAS PART ROMAN CULT UNCONQUERED INVICTUS CHRISTIAN CHURCHES WERE BUILT WITH ORIENTATION THAT CONGREGATION FACED TOWARD SUNRISE EAST TONATIUH AZTEC USUALLY DEPICTED HOLDING ARROWS SHIELD CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH PRACTICE HUMAN SACRIFICE GODDESS AMATERASU MOST IMPORTANT DEITY SHINTO RELIGION BELIEVED DIRECT ANCESTOR JAPANESE EMPERORS
Thanks to Spyro<3 for these words.
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